The map
This map (above) shows international water basins, i.e., territories draining into a river, waterways draining into the soil and the great lakes. The colour scale indicates the number of agreements struck to govern the use of water, including the flow rates to maintain where there are dams and/or irrigation and the environmental aspects, e.g., water quality, pollution and, to a lesser extent, biodiversity.

Basins contained within a single territory, e.g., the Loire (F) and the Weser (G), have been omitted. Underground waterways have just recently become the focus of diplomacy: only 15 treaties tackle the management of international aquifers, compared to more than 800 for surface waters. The very first was signed by the Canton of Geneva.

The real absence of water wars is partly due to international treaties. “Research shows that they are an effective instrument for promoting collaboration between States, even when they have difficult relations”, says Melissa McCracken, a professor of international environmental politics at Tufts University (USA). She is part of a team that manages several databases on the diplomacy of fresh water, which cover 300 waterways and their related conflicts, instances of cooperation and treaties.

“Often, water is managed at the technical level, rather than the political level”.Melissa McCracken

These tools help us to improve our understanding of the drivers of conflict over water and the mechanisms that encourage cooperation and sustainable governance. One important aspect is that the agreements shift the discussions from the geopolitical – i.e., territorial – arena and into the one on infrastructure. “Often, water is managed at the technical level, rather than the political level, which can help to maintain relationships for effective cooperation without the issues becoming as politicised”.

Illustration: Bodara

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Feature: Water bargaining